Rising American inequality stems from efficiency-enhancing policy changes in the 1970s and 1980s. There is growing recognition that the current free-market income distribution – the combination of large inequalities and stagnant wages for many workers – creates its own “soft” inefficiencies as people become disenchanted with existing economic arrangements.

Only four instruments have led to positive results in the form of increased integration into the labour market - (i) placement vouchers; (ii) training programmes; (iii) wage subsidies; and (iv) business start-up grants. This translates to only around 28%, or €4.2 billion, of the total expenditure on active labour market policies.